The Science and Invention of new genetic technologies are allowing us to understand Nature in greater detail than ever before.

This SINergy surveys how modern knowledge of genetics, and new genetic technologies, are changing the world we live in.

Studies of the genetic make-up of some endangered species including red squirrels and wildcats reveal information that could prove vital in the fight to save them from extinction. Some even think that one day, genetic technologies will be so advanced that it might be possible to bring certain extinct species, such as the Tasmanian tiger, back from the dead.

Other areas of research and application of new genetic technologies, including human reproductive cloning and gene therapy, are more contentious and raise a number of ethical issues.

Knowledge of our genes helps us to understand the human condition. Genealogy is increasing in popularity as genetic studies allow people to learn about their family origins. The diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders is improving as the role of genes is studied and exposed.

And the knowledge of our genes, and those of other species, may eventually help us to answer one of the hardest questions of all – ‘what is the essence of life’?

Red squirrels at The Natural History Museum

Red squirrel Credit: The Natural History Museum

The red squirrel used to occupy much of the British countryside but since the loss of the pine forests in which it lives, and the introduction of its hardier cousin, the grey squirrel, it has experienced a severe decrease in numbers. New genetic technologies are set to play a key role in understanding, and hopefully reversing, the squirrel’s decline. A small woodland on the Isle of Anglesey in Wales supports about 100 individuals. Unfortunately, this population is completely isolated and there are no neighbouring groups. The squirrels are at risk of inbreeding, which would make them more susceptible to local extinction. Scientists have recovered DNA from the squirrels’ hair follicles and studied it in order to reveal the real levels of genetic diversity within the population. This information will be crucial for the construction and implementation of conservation plans. New genetic technologies are an important weapon in the battle to prevent the Anglesey red squirrels from dying out.

Wildcats at The Natural History Museum

The Scottish wildcat, like wildcats worldwide, is considered to be threatened by hybridisation with the domestic cat. Genetic studies in Scotland have highlighted the difficulties in defining a wildcat in terms of its genetic make-up. Because wildcats have interbred with domestic cats for a long time, it is not known if any animals retain ‘pure’ wildcat DNA. Traditional research techniques focused on physical appearance and it was assumed that relatedness and ‘wildness’ of cats could be evaluated based on characteristics such as coat colour alone. Cats with striped tabby coats tend to be larger and wilder, whilst those with coats of other colours are usually smaller and more similar to domestic cats. But the trends are not straightforward. Now, using new genetic technologies, scientists can analyse the relationships between cats in much greater detail. This level of understanding could be crucially important in the effort to secure a safe future for these rare and beautiful predators.

Thylacine at ARKive
The thylacine, formerly referred to as the Tasmanian tiger or Tasmanian wolf, was a carnivorous marsupial driven to extinction by European settlers in the 1930s. Some scientists believe that with the advent of new genetic technologies there may be an opportunity to restore the thylacine to life. In 2002, DNA was extracted from a thylacine pup museum specimen and some individual genes replicated using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. Potentially, all of the thylacine’s genes could be copied and strung together in the right order, creating synthetic chromosomes. If the full genome could be obtained, scientific advances of the future may allow a new individual to develop, within either an artificial environment or the pouch of a surrogate mother from another species. However, serious concerns about ethics, as well as funding issues and the limitations of current knowledge mean that this extraordinary possibility is still a long way from becoming a reality. Furthermore, there are concerns that the possibility of cloning to ‘raise species from the dead’ could cause people to think the extinction of a species as a temporary or reversible state, and that this mind-set could undermine conservation efforts targeted at endangered species.

Human Reproductive Cloning at Y Touring

Many of the new genetic technologies touch on complex ethical issues, but the subject of human reproductive cloning is uniquely contentious. In this feature, the opinions of two opposing organisations – one against human reproductive cloning, and one in favour of continued research and experimentation with cloning – are examined. Those against, argue that the element of control over someone else’s genetic makeup is a fundamental problem. They back up their assertion by looking at the physical, psychological and social risks involved. Those in favour of cloning believe that it could help to cure infertility, achieve medical breakthroughs, take a step towards immortality and give people a better sense of identity. What do you think?

Gene therapy at Y Touring

Conventional treatments of inherited diseases aim to suppress their symptoms and are often of limited effectiveness. Gene therapy, on the other hand, aims to repair or replace the defective genes, thereby avoiding the disease altogether. It is still in its infancy, but some early trials have shown encouraging results and doctors hope that they will be able to use it to treat many inherited diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, in the future. Gene therapy raises a number of ethical issues and guidelines have been drawn up concerning its appropriate use.

Genes and Mental Disorders at Y Touring

'Insane woman’ from Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872) by Charles Darwin Credit: Science Museum/Science & Society Picture Library

Our likelihood of developing a mental disorder is affected by a combination of our genes and our environment – nature and nurture. Genes are more influential in some disorders, such as schizophrenia, than others. By comparing the DNA of affected and unaffected individuals, it is now possible to identify the actual genes involved. Hopefully the identification of these genes will provide a secure foundation for better diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. Research is still in its early stages but there have been some notable achievements - some of the genes that are involved in susceptibility to dementia (e.g. Alzheimer's disease and Huntington's disease) have already been identified.

Finding Ancestors and Descendants at the Science Museum

Genealogy (family history) is a hot topic. New genetic technologies such as DNA testing can be extremely useful in investigating our family origins. The core aim of genealogy is to help us trace our ancestors and to understand where we come from and with whom we share certain traits. It can also shed light on the origins of genetic diseases such as Tay-Sachs disease and sickle cell anaemia and may be used to trace carriers. Revealing our genetic origins may assist us in understanding our identities.

Life, God and DNA at the Science Museum

Do human beings, and other species, have a special ‘natural’ or ‘life’ quality that non-living things do not have? Is life just a chemical phenomenon with a few special molecules or are living things different?  C.S. Lewis, the English author of the Narnia stories, felt that living things were different and understanding them needed a spiritual approach. For some groups, such as communists and Marxists, the question ‘what is life?’ had political as well as scientific overtones. In 1953, when Watson and Crick deciphered the structure of DNA, the secret code of life was revealed. But can we know for sure - what is the essence of life?